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# Chapter 16 - Rings
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## Section 16.1 - Rings
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**Definition**. A nonempty set $S$ is a *ring* if, with two binary operations called addition and multipllication, the following are satisfied:
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Thus, $ab \in P$. By symnetry, assume $a \notin P$. Thus, $b \in P$ by the devinition of a prime ideal, so $b + P = 0 + P$, meaning $R/P$ is an integral domain.
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**Theorem**. 16.40: In a commutative ring with identity, every maximal ideal is also a prime ideal.
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**Theorem**. 16.40: In a commutative ring with identity, every maximal ideal is also a prime ideal.
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# Chapter 17 - Polynomial Rings
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## Section 17.1 - Polynomial Rings
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Throughout this chapter, we will assume that $R$ is a commutative ring with identity.
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@@ -63,4 +64,4 @@ Then, if $p | a_i$ for $0 \leq i < n$, but $p \nmid a_n$ and $p^2 \nmid a_0$, th
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**Theorem**. If $F$ is a field, then every ideal in $F[x]$ is a principal ideal.
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**Theorem**. Let $F$ be a field, and suppose $p(x) \in F[x]$. Then, the ideal $<p(x)>$ is maximal if and only if $p(x)$ is irreducible.
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**Theorem**. Let $F$ be a field, and suppose $p(x) \in F[x]$. Then, the ideal $<p(x)>$ is maximal if and only if $p(x)$ is irreducible.
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@@ -98,4 +98,4 @@ As a direct consequence, we see the following.
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1. Given a field $F$, since $F$ is a PID, it is also a UFD. Thus, $F[x]$ is a UFD.
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2. The ring of polynomials over integers, $\mathbb{Z}[x]$ is a UFD.
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3. Given $D$ is a UFD, $D[x]$ is a UFD. Thus, $D[x_1, x_2]$ is a UFD, and by induction, $D[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$ is a UFD.
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3. Given $D$ is a UFD, $D[x]$ is a UFD. Thus, $D[x_1, x_2]$ is a UFD, and by induction, $D[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$ is a UFD.
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@@ -36,4 +36,4 @@ Note that $a_n(t)$ does not depeond on any derivative of $y$, so the presence of
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This section is from [Paul's Online Math Notes](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/DirectionFields.aspx).
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**Definition**. A directional field is the graph of a $t$ vs. $y(t)$, with vectors drawn at each point with a slope corresponding to $y'(t)$. Notably, each arrow will be pointed right (towards increasing $t$).
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**Definition**. A directional field is the graph of a $t$ vs. $y(t)$, with vectors drawn at each point with a slope corresponding to $y'(t)$. Notably, each arrow will be pointed right (towards increasing $t$).
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@@ -144,4 +144,4 @@ $$
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\frac{1}{1-n}v' + p(x)v = q(x)
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$$
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After solving, be sure to rewrite in terms of $y$.
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After solving, be sure to rewrite in terms of $y$.
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@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ Thus, we allow the *charactaristic equation* of the differential equation to be
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$$ ar^2 + br + c = 0 $$
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# Section 3.2 - Real & Distinct Roots
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## Section 3.2 - Real & Distinct Roots
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This section is from [Paul's Online Math Notes](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/RealRoots.aspx).
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@@ -42,11 +42,11 @@ $$ y_1(t) = e^{r_1 t} $$
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$$ y_2(t) = e^{r_2 t} $$
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Thus,
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Thus,
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$$ y(t) = c_1 e^{r_1 t} + c_2 e^{r_2 t} $$
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# Section 3.3 - Complex Roots
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## Section 3.3 - Complex Roots
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This section is from [Paul's Online Math Notes](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/ComplexRoots.aspx).
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@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ Assume we have the differential equation as follows:
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$$ y'' + p(t) y' + q(t) y = g(t) $$
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The equivilent homogenous differential equation is
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The equivilent homogenous differential equation is
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$$ y'' + p(t) y' + q(t) y = 0 $$
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@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ Assume we have the differential equation as follows:
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$$ y'' + p(t) y' + q(t) y = g(t) $$
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The equivilent homogenous differential equation is
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The equivilent homogenous differential equation is
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$$ y'' + p(t) y' + q(t) y = 0 $$
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@@ -164,4 +164,4 @@ For this method, we must have $y_1(t)$ and $y_2(t)$ known. Through a lot of math
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$$
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y_p = -y_1 \int \frac{y_2(t)g(t)}{W(y_1, y_2)} dt + y_2 \int \frac{y_1(t)g(t)}{W(y_1, y_2)} dt
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$$
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$$
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# Section 4 - Laplace Transformations
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## Section 4.1 - Definition
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This section is from [Paul's Online Math Notes](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/LaplaceDefinition.aspx).
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@@ -78,4 +79,4 @@ We can take the Laplace transformation of an IVP, solve for $Y(s)$, then take th
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## Section 4.6 - Nonconstant Coefficient IVPs
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This section is from [Paul's Online Math Notes](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/IVPWithNonConstantCoefficient.aspx).
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This section is from [Paul's Online Math Notes](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/IVPWithNonConstantCoefficient.aspx).
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# Chapter 1 - Mathematics
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## 1.5 - Dyads and Tensors
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**Definition**. A *dyadic* is a representation of two-ish vectors.
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@@ -81,7 +81,6 @@ $$
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The curl of an electrostatic or magnetostatic is relatively simple.
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$$
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\begin{align}
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\curl{E(\vb{r})} &= \frac{1}{4 \pi \epsilon_0} \int_V \rho_e(\vb{r'}) \curl{(\frac{\vb{r}-\vb{r'}}{\abs{\vb{r}-\vb{r'}}^3})} \dd V' \\
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**Definition**. This is known as *Gauss' Law*.
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With applicable symnetry, the integral factor becomes simply $E(r)*A$, where $A$ is the area of the surface at $r$.
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With applicable symnetry, the integral factor becomes simply $E(r)*A$, where $A$ is the area of the surface at $r$.
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@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ The units of magnetostatic potential is Joule/Weber, also known as an Ampere. Th
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With this, we can calculate work. Moving a charge $q$ from $A$ to $B$, we see that
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$$
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\delta W = \int_A^B \vb{F} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = q_e \int_A^B \vb{E} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = -q_e \int_A^B \grad{\vb{V}} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = -q_e \delta V_e
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\delta W = \int_A^B \vb{F} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = q_e \int_A^B \vb{E} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = -q_e \int_A^B \grad{\vb{V}} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = -q_e \delta V_e
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$$
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Strictly speaking, this is a potential difference. To find the absolute potential, assume a point charge $Q$ at the origin, and a charge $q$. We take the work as $q$ moves from $\vb{r'} = \vb{\infty}$ to $\vb{r'} = \vb{r}$. Thus,
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V_e(\vb{r}) = \frac{1}{4 \pi \epsilon_0} \int_{V'} \frac{\rho_e(\vb{r'})}{\abs{\vb{r}-\vb{r'}}} \dd{V'}
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$$
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$$
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V_m(\vb{r}) = \frac{1}{4 \pi \mu_0} \int_{V'} \frac{\rho_m(\vb{r'})}{\abs{\vb{r}-\vb{r'}}} \dd{V'}
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$$
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W_2 = W_{21} = \frac{1}{4 \pi \epsilon_0} \frac{Q_{e1} Q_{e2}}{\abs{\vb{r_2} - \vb{r_1}}}
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$$
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Superposition applies here. The energy to create $N$ charges is
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Superposition applies here. The energy to create $N$ charges is
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$$
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W_n = \frac{1}{2} \frac{4 \pi \epsilon_0} \sum_{i = 1}^{N} \sum_{j > i}^{N} \frac{Q_{ei}Q_{ej}}{\abs{\vb{r_i}-\vb{r_j}}}
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Taking the divergence, we find that
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$$
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- \laplacian{V(\vb{r})} = G(\vb{r}, \vb{r'}) \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} = \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} \laplacian({\frac{-1}{4\pi \abs{\vb{r} - \vb{r'}}}})
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- \laplacian{V(\vb{r})} = G(\vb{r}, \vb{r'}) \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} = \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} \laplacian({\frac{-1}{4\pi \abs{\vb{r} - \vb{r'}}}})
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= \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} \div \frac{\vb{r} - \vb{r'}}{\abs{\vb{r} - \vb{r'}}^3} = \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} \delta(\vb{r} - \vb{r'})
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$$
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Note that as a quirk of the function, $P_n(1) = 1$ for all $n$.
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We can apply these quadrupole and beyond terms to the volate or other equations, however, this becomes very messy.
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We can apply these quadrupole and beyond terms to the volate or other equations, however, this becomes very messy.
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@@ -16,4 +16,4 @@ Consider any two points internal to the conductor. The voltage between said poin
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The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to its surface. Consider some displacement $\dd{\vb{l}}$. Now, $\vb{E} \vdot \dd{\vb{l}} = \vb{E}_s \vdot \dd{\vb{l}}_s + \vb{E}_p \vdot \dd{\vb{l}}_p = \dd{V_s} + \dd{V_p}$, in terms of parallel and perpendicular components. The paralell voltage difference is zero, so the electric field must be zero.
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Consider the surface of a conductor with surface charge density $\sigma_e$. A cyliner with one end inside and one end outside said surface, with its axis normal to said surface, will be a Gaussian "pillbox", which will show that with V being the volume of the pillbox, $\int_V \div{\vb{E}} \dd{V} = \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} = \frac{A\sigma_e}{\epsilon_0}$. Thus, $\sigma_e = \epsilon_0 E$.
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Consider the surface of a conductor with surface charge density $\sigma_e$. A cyliner with one end inside and one end outside said surface, with its axis normal to said surface, will be a Gaussian "pillbox", which will show that with V being the volume of the pillbox, $\int_V \div{\vb{E}} \dd{V} = \frac{Q_e}{\epsilon_0} = \frac{A\sigma_e}{\epsilon_0}$. Thus, $\sigma_e = \epsilon_0 E$.
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# Breads
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# Pumpkin Bread
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## Pumpkin Bread
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- Preheat oven to $350 \degree$ F.
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- Combine $1 \frac{2}{3}$ cups flour, $1 \frac{1}{2}$ cups sugar, 1 tsp. baking soda, 1 tsp cinnamon, $\frac{3}{4}$ tsp. salt, $\frac{1}{2}$ tsp. baking powder, $\frac{1}{2}$ tsp. nutmeg, $\frac{1}{4}$ tsp cloves.
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- In a separate bowl, combine 2 eggs, 1 can of pumpkin, $\frac{1}{2}$ cup canola oil, and $\frac{1}{2}$ cups water.
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- Combine. Mix in $\frac{1}{2}$ cups of walnuts.
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- Add to a greased 9x5 pan. Bake at $350 \degree$ F for 65-80 minutes.
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- Add to a greased 9x5 pan. Bake at $350 \degree$ F for 65-80 minutes.
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@@ -43,10 +43,10 @@ From: [Link](https://www.allrecipes.com/recipe/234374/apple-hand-pies/)
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- Mix in apples, add sugar mixture.
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- Wait until apples are softened (approx. 5 minutes).
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### Pies
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### Hand Pies
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- Preheat oven to $400 \degree$ F.
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- Split pie crust into 4. Place fillin in crust, fold.
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- Sprinkle with $\frac{1}{4}$ tsp. white sugar.
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- Whisk 2 tsp. milk, 1 egg. Brush pastries.
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- Bake at $400 \degree$ F. for 25-30 minutes.
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- Bake at $400 \degree$ F. for 25-30 minutes.
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