Definition Punctuation
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@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ Note that some books impose the condition that $1 \neq 0$. If $1 = 0$, we can sh
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## Section 16.3 - Ring Homomorphisms and Ideals
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## Section 16.3 - Ring Homomorphisms and Ideals
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**Definition** Given rings $R$ and $S$, and a mapping $\varphi: R \rightarrow S$, we say that $\varphi$ is a *ring homomorphism* if the following are satisfied for all elements of $R$:
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**Definition**. Given rings $R$ and $S$, and a mapping $\varphi: R \rightarrow S$, we say that $\varphi$ is a *ring homomorphism* if the following are satisfied for all elements of $R$:
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$$
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$$
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\begin{align}
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\begin{align}
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## Section 17.3 Irreducible Polynomials
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## Section 17.3 Irreducible Polynomials
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**Definition** A non-constant polynomial $f(x) \ in F[x]$ is *irreducible* over a field $F$ if it cannot be expressed as the product of two non-identity polynomials $g(x)$ and $h(x)$ in $F[x]$, with the degree of both polynomials strictly less than the degree of $f(x)$.
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**Definition**. A non-constant polynomial $f(x) \ in F[x]$ is *irreducible* over a field $F$ if it cannot be expressed as the product of two non-identity polynomials $g(x)$ and $h(x)$ in $F[x]$, with the degree of both polynomials strictly less than the degree of $f(x)$.
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**Lemma**. Let $p(x) \in \mathbb{Q}[x]$. Then, with $r, s \in \mathbb{Z}, a(x) \in \mathbb{N}[x]$, we can write $p(x) = \frac{r}{s} a(x)$.
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**Lemma**. Let $p(x) \in \mathbb{Q}[x]$. Then, with $r, s \in \mathbb{Z}, a(x) \in \mathbb{N}[x]$, we can write $p(x) = \frac{r}{s} a(x)$.
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**Theorem**. 18.15: Every PID is a UFD. Note that the converse is not true.
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**Theorem**. 18.15: Every PID is a UFD. Note that the converse is not true.
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**Corollary** 18.16: Let $F$ be a field. Then, $F[x]$ is a UFD.
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**Corollary**. 18.16: Let $F$ be a field. Then, $F[x]$ is a UFD.
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---
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---
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**Remark**. Modules over a field $F$ and vector spaces over $F$ are identical.
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**Remark**. Modules over a field $F$ and vector spaces over $F$ are identical.
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**Definition** An *R-submodule* is a subset$N \subseteq M$ which is closed under the action taken forall $r \in R$. That is, given $r \in R, n \in N$, then $rn \in N$. Every module has at least two submodules: itself and the trivial (empty) submodule.
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**Definition**. An *R-submodule* is a subset$N \subseteq M$ which is closed under the action taken forall $r \in R$. That is, given $r \in R, n \in N$, then $rn \in N$. Every module has at least two submodules: itself and the trivial (empty) submodule.
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**Remark**. If $F$ is a field, submodules are equivalent to subspaces.
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**Remark**. If $F$ is a field, submodules are equivalent to subspaces.
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**Corollary**. If $F$ is a free $R$-module with basis $A$, then $F \cong F(A)$.
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**Corollary**. If $F$ is a free $R$-module with basis $A$, then $F \cong F(A)$.
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**Definition** For a free module $F$ with basis $A$, if $R$ is commutative, then the *rank* of $F$ is the cardinality of $A$.
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**Definition**. For a free module $F$ with basis $A$, if $R$ is commutative, then the *rank* of $F$ is the cardinality of $A$.
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## Section 10.4 - Tensor Products of Modules
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## Section 10.4 - Tensor Products of Modules
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This is the *torsion submodule* of $M$. If $\text{Tor}(M)$ is empty, then $M$ is *torsion-free*.
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This is the *torsion submodule* of $M$. If $\text{Tor}(M)$ is empty, then $M$ is *torsion-free*.
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**Definition** Let $R$ be an integral domain and $M$ be an $R$-module. Then, given a submodule $N$,
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**Definition**. Let $R$ be an integral domain and $M$ be an $R$-module. Then, given a submodule $N$,
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$$
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$$
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\text{Ann}_R(N) = \{r \in R | rn = 0 \text{ for all } n \in N \}
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\text{Ann}_R(N) = \{r \in R | rn = 0 \text{ for all } n \in N \}
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\frac{dy}{dt} + p(t)y = g(t)
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\frac{dy}{dt} + p(t)y = g(t)
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$$
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$$
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To find a solution to this differential equation, construct the **integrating factor** $\mu(t)$.
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To find a solution to this differential equation, construct the **integrating factor**. $\mu(t)$.
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$$\mu(t) = k \exp(\int p(t) dt)$$
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$$\mu(t) = k \exp(\int p(t) dt)$$
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2. $\mathbb{N} \subseteq F^+$
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2. $\mathbb{N} \subseteq F^+$
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3. If $a \in F^+$, then $\frac{1}{a} \in F^+$
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3. If $a \in F^+$, then $\frac{1}{a} \in F^+$
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**Definition** The order relation $a > b$ and $b < a$ is defined by $a - b \in F^+$.
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**Definition**. The order relation $a > b$ and $b < a$ is defined by $a - b \in F^+$.
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**Theorem**. If $a, b, c \in F$, then
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**Theorem**. If $a, b, c \in F$, then
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2. $|a - b| = |b - a|$
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2. $|a - b| = |b - a|$
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3. $|a - c| \leq |a - b| + |b + c|$
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3. $|a - c| \leq |a - b| + |b + c|$
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**Definition** A set together with a function satisfying these three properties is known as a *metric space*.
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**Definition**. A set together with a function satisfying these three properties is known as a *metric space*.
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**Definition** The $\varepsilon$-neighborhood of $a \in \mathbb{R}$, denoted $V_\varepsilon(a)$ is the set of all real numbers $x \in \mathbb{R}$ such that $|x - a| < \varepsilon$. That is,
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**Definition**. The $\varepsilon$-neighborhood of $a \in \mathbb{R}$, denoted $V_\varepsilon(a)$ is the set of all real numbers $x \in \mathbb{R}$ such that $|x - a| < \varepsilon$. That is,
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$$
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$$
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V_\varepsilon(a) = (a - \varepsilon, a + \varepsilon)
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V_\varepsilon(a) = (a - \varepsilon, a + \varepsilon)
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## Section 2.1 - Air Resistance
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## Section 2.1 - Air Resistance
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**Definition**. The *drag*, or resistive force on an object due to the atmosphere, is denoted as $\mathbf{f}$. Note that this is **not** the force density, but the overall force. In most cases, this force directly opposes the direction of motion. If not, the other component is known as *lift*, however this is mostly negligible.
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**Definition**. The *drag*, or resistive force on an object due to the atmosphere, is denoted as $\mathbf{f}$. Note that this is **not**. the force density, but the overall force. In most cases, this force directly opposes the direction of motion. If not, the other component is known as *lift*, however this is mostly negligible.
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We define air resistance as $\mathbf{f} = -f(v) \hat{\mathbf{v}}$. We consider two types in this text: linear, where $f(v) = f_{lin} = bv$, and quadratic, where $f(v) = f_{quad} = cv^2$. Note that often times we consider both, and state that $f(v) = f_{lin} + f_{quad} = bv + cv^2$.
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We define air resistance as $\mathbf{f} = -f(v) \hat{\mathbf{v}}$. We consider two types in this text: linear, where $f(v) = f_{lin} = bv$, and quadratic, where $f(v) = f_{quad} = cv^2$. Note that often times we consider both, and state that $f(v) = f_{lin} + f_{quad} = bv + cv^2$.
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